Phytochemical Analysis and Extraction
Phytochemical analysis encompasses the extraction, separation, identification, and quantification of bioactive plant secondary metabolites including alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenolics.
Plant Transformation and Genetic Engineering
Plant transformation introduces foreign DNA into plant cells using Agrobacterium-mediated or biolistic methods, enabling trait improvement and functional genomics research.
Plant Hormones and Growth Regulators
Plant hormones are signaling molecules that regulate growth, development, and stress responses through complex networks of biosynthesis, transport, perception, and signal transduction.
Plant Tissue Culture and Micropropagation
Plant tissue culture is the aseptic culture of plant cells, tissues, or organs under controlled conditions, enabling rapid clonal propagation, genetic transformation, and secondary metabolite production.
Photosynthesis: Light and Dark Reactions
Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy through light-dependent reactions that produce ATP and NADPH, followed by the Calvin cycle that fixes carbon dioxide into carbohydrates.
Plant Cell Structure and Organelles
Plant cells are eukaryotic cells distinguished by a rigid cell wall, chloroplasts for photosynthesis, and a large central vacuole that maintains turgor pressure and stores nutrients.
